Chapter 5
Regulations and Procedures

Requirements for Instrument Rating

Although “FAR” is used as the acronym for “Federal Aviation Regulations,” and found throughout the regulations themselves and hundreds of other publications, the FAA is now actively discouraging its use. “FAR” also means “Federal Acquisition Regulations.” To eliminate any possible confusion, the FAA cites the federal aviation regulations with reference to Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations. For example, “FAR Part 91.3” is referenced as “14 CFR Part 91 Section 3.”

Federal Aviation Regulations Part 61 stipulates that no person may act as pilot-in-command (PIC) of a civil aircraft under IFR or in weather conditions less than the minimums prescribed for visual flight rules (VFR) unless the pilot holds an instrument rating. The rating must be for the category of aircraft to be flown; e.g., airplane or rotorcraft.

In addition, any flight in Class A airspace (from 18,000 feet MSL to and including FL600) requires an instrument rating. VFR flight is not allowed in Class A airspace.

Commercial airplane pilots who carry passengers for hire at night, or on cross-country flights of more than 50 nautical miles (NM), are also required to hold an instrument rating.

Student, recreational, and private pilot operations other than glider and balloon pilots require a third-class medical certificate, or if operating without a medical certificate, compliance with 14 CFR Part 68, referred to as BasicMed. The BasicMed privileges apply to persons exercising student, recreational, and private pilot privileges when acting as pilot-in-command (PIC). It also applies to persons exercising flight instructor privileges when acting as PIC. You cannot use BasicMed privileges to fly as a safety pilot, except when you are acting as PIC. When operating under BasicMed, pilots are limited to:

1. Fly with no more than five passengers.

2. Fly an aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of no more than 6,000 lbs.

3. Fly an aircraft that is authorized to carry no more than six occupants.

4. Flights within the United States, at an indicated airspeed of 250 knots or less, and at an altitude at or below 18,000 feet mean sea level (MSL).

5. You may not fly for compensation or hire.

If operating beyond these limitations, pilots must obtain an FAA Medical Certificate.

Instrument Currency Requirements

No person may act as pilot-in-command under IFR or in weather conditions less than the minimums prescribed for VFR, unless within the preceding 6 calendar months, that person has performed and logged under actual or simulated instrument conditions:

1. At least 6 instrument approaches made in an aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training device;

2. Holding procedures; and

3. Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation systems.

Satisfactory accomplishment (within the last 6 calendar months) of an instrument proficiency check in the category of aircraft to be flown will also meet this recency requirements.

If the recent instrument experience for 6 calendar months is not met, the pilot may not act as PIC under IFR until an instrument proficiency check (IPC) in the category of aircraft involved has been passed. This check must be given by an approved FAA examiner, instrument instructor, or FAA inspector.

Equipment Requirements

For IFR flight, the following instruments and equipment are required:

1. All VFR day and night equipment.

2. Two-way radio and navigational equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used.

3. Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator.

4. Slip-skid indicator.

5. Gyroscopic attitude indicator.

6. Gyroscopic heading indicator.

7. Sensitive altimeter.

8. Clock with sweep-second hand or digital display.

9. Generator of adequate capacity.

10. Mode C transponder with encoding altimeter (above 10,000 feet MSL in controlled airspace).

11. DME when at or above FL240 using VORs for navigation. Should the DME fail at or above 24,000 feet MSL, the PIC shall report the failure to ATC immediately and may then continue at and above 24,000 feet MSL to the next airport of intended landing.

Inspection Requirements

The altimeter, transponder, static system, and encoder must be checked every 24 calendar months.

The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) batteries must be replaced when 50% of their shelf life has expired, or after 1 hour of cumulative use. Check the date on the outside of the transmitter case.

The VOR receiver(s) must be checked within 30 days and found to be within limits.

Oxygen Requirements

Pilots are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 5,000 feet MSL at night. 14 CFR §91.211 stipulates that the required flight crew must use oxygen after 30 minutes at cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500 feet MSL, and at all times at cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet MSL. Every occupant of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet MSL.

Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency, and impairs functions of the brain and other organs. Headache, drowsiness, dizziness, and euphoria are all symptoms of hypoxia. Hyperventilation, a deficiency of carbon dioxide within the body, can be the result of rapid or extra deep breathing due to emotional tension, anxiety, or fear. Symptoms will subside after the rate and depth of breathing are brought under control. Anxiety is an uneasiness over an impending or anticipated ill, or a fearful concern.

Logbook Requirements

Pilots are authorized to log both simulated and actual instrument time, but only for that period during which the pilot operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments. An instrument instructor may log instrument time when instruction is given during actual instrument weather conditions. Each logbook entry must include the place and type of each instrument approach, and for each flight in simulated instrument conditions, the name of the safety pilot.

A safety pilot must occupy the other control seat when the PIC is operating the aircraft solely by reference to instruments. The safety pilot is required to be an appropriately-rated pilot, but there is no requirement to have an instrument rating.

Preflight Requirements

Before beginning a flight, the PIC is required to become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. This must include:

1. Weather reports and forecasts.

2. Fuel requirements.

3. Alternatives available if the flight cannot be completed as planned.

4. Any known traffic delays.

5. Runway lengths.

6. Expected takeoff and landing distances.

Airspace

Figure 5-1

Class A—Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL to and including FL600. No VFR flight, including VFR-On-Top, is authorized in Class A airspace. With altimeter set to 29.92, you fly at pressure altitude.

Class B—Class B airspace consists of controlled airspace within which all aircraft are subject to certain operating rules as well as pilot and equipment requirements. Each location will contain at least one primary airport. ATC clearance is required prior to operating within Class B airspace. In addition, each aircraft must be equipped with: two-way radio with appropriate ATC frequencies, a VOR or TACAN receiver unless flying VFR, and a Mode C transponder (there are some local exceptions when operating to non-primary airports). ATC may authorize deviations from the transponder requirements. Requests for deviation must be submitted to the controlling ATC facility at least 1 hour prior to the proposed operation. A pilot landing or taking off from an airport within Class B airspace must hold at least a Private Pilot Certificate, or meet stringent student pilot requirements. When operating to or from the primary airport, large turbine-powered airplanes must remain at or above the floor of Class B airspace.

Class C—Class C airspace is controlled airspace surrounding designated airports within which ATC provides radar vectoring and sequencing for all IFR and VFR aircraft. Two-way radio is required, and communication with ATC must be maintained while flying within Class C airspace. A Mode C transponder is required within, and up to 10,000 feet MSL over Class C airspace.

Class D—Class D airspace exists only when and where an airport traffic control tower is in operation. It usually extends for a 5 statute mile radius (4 nautical miles) from the center of the airport and from the surface up to, but not including, 2,500 feet AGL. The actual dimensions may be different, as needed. ATC authorization is required for all operations within the airspace. When the control tower is not operating, the Class D airspace becomes Class E or Class G, as appropriate.

Class E—Class E airspace is controlled airspace that has not been designated Class A, B, C, or D.

Class G—Class G airspace is the portion of airspace that has not been designated Class A, B, C, D, or E airspace. It is uncontrolled; ATC has neither the authority nor the responsibility for exercising control over air traffic in these areas.

Transition Area—Class E airspace which begins at 700 feet AGL or at 1,200 feet AGL and is used as a transition to/from the terminal environment.

Alert Area—contains a high volume of pilot training or other unusual aerial activity.

Military Operations Area (MOA)—designated to separate or segregate certain military activities from IFR traffic and to let VFR traffic know where these activities are taking place.

Prohibited and Restricted Areas—denote the presence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to flight.

Warning Areas—contain the same sort of hazardous activities as those in Restricted Areas, but are located in international airspace.

Cloud Clearance and Visibility Requirements

When operating under VFR, or when operating with a VFR-On-Top clearance, the pilot must maintain the required visibility and cloud clearance appropriate to the altitude flown. See Figures 5-2 and 5-3.

Figure 5-2. Visibility and cloud clearance

Figure 5-3. Basic VFR weather minimums

Aircraft Accident/Incident Reporting and NOTAMs

Reports are required following an aircraft accident, if an aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved in an accident, or after any of a number of listed incidents. The reporting procedures are set forth in National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Part 830.

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) provide the most current information available. They provide time-critical information on airports and changes that affect the national airspace system and are of concern to IFR operations. NOTAM information is classified into five categories: NOTAM (D) or distant, Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs, pointer NOTAMs, Special Activity Airspace (SAA) NOTAMs, and military NOTAMs.

NOTAM-Ds are attached to hourly weather reports and are available at flight service stations (AFSS/FSS). FDC NOTAMs are issued by the National Flight Data Center and contain regulatory information, such as temporary flight restrictions or an amendment to instrument approach procedures.

Pointer NOTAMs highlight or point out another NOTAM, such as an FDC or NOTAM (D). This type of NOTAM will assist pilots in cross-referencing important information that may not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier. Military NOTAMs pertain to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy NAVAIDs/airports that are part of the NAS.

SAA NOTAMs are issued when Special Activity Airspace will be active outside the published schedule times and when required by the published schedule. Pilots and other users are still responsible to check published schedule times for Special Activity Airspace as well as any NOTAMs for that airspace.

Prior to any flight, pilots should check for any NOTAMs that could affect their intended flight.

Spatial Disorientation

Illusions caused by the motion-sensing system of the body are most commonly encountered during instrument flight. The system may be stimulated by motion of the aircraft or by head or body movement. It is not capable of distinguishing between centrifugal force and gravity, nor can it detect small changes in velocity. This system may also produce false sensations, such as interpreting deceleration as a turn in the opposite direction. These illusions and false sensations may lead to spatial disorientation.

The most common form of spatial disorientation is “the leans,” resulting from a banked attitude not being perceived by the pilot. Abrupt correction of a banked attitude may stimulate the motion-sensing fluid of the inner ear, creating the sensation of banking in the opposite direction. The pilot may roll the aircraft back to its original attitude until he/she thinks the aircraft is straight and level, or if level flight is maintained, will still feel compelled to align his/her body with the perceived vertical.

The motion-sensing system may lead to a false perception of the true vertical. For example, in a well-coordinated turn without visual reference, the only sensation is that of the body being pressed into the seat, a sensation normally associated with a climb, and the pilot may falsely interpret it as such. On the other hand, recovering from turns reduces pressure on the seat and may lead the pilot to believe the aircraft is descending.

Spatial disorientation can happen to anyone since it is due to the normal function and limitations of the senses of balance. It only becomes dangerous when the pilot fails to suppress the false sensations and place complete reliance on the indications of the flight instruments. Eventually, as instrument flight experience is acquired, the onset of spatial disorientation lessens as trust in the flight instruments is built up.

An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion. This is called “inversion illusion.” A rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a nose-up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low, or dive attitude. This is called “somatogravic illusion.”

Optical Illusions

Various atmospheric and surface features encountered while landing may create the illusion of incorrect distance from, or height above, the landing runway. Some of the more common illusions are:

Runway width illusion—A runway that is narrower-than-usual can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude that it actually is, causing the pilot to fly a lower than normal approach. A wider-than-usual runway can have the opposite effect.

Runway and terrain slopes illusion—An upsloping runway or upsloping terrain can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is, while a down-sloping runway will have the opposite effect.

Atmospheric illusion—Atmospheric haze can create the illusion of being at a greater distance from the runway. Rain on the windshield can create an illusion of greater height. The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach.

Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, or certain geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous position. This illusion is called “false horizons.”

Cockpit Lighting and Scanning

Dark adaptation, during which vision becomes more sensitive to light, can be achieved to a moderate degree within 20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. After that, any exposure to white light, even for a few seconds, will seriously impair night vision.

Only a very small portion of the eye has the ability to send clear messages to the brain. Because the eyes focus on only a narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly-spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central viewing area of the retina. Each movement should not exceed 10°, and each area should be observed for at least 1 second to enable the eyes to detect a moving or contrasting object.

Pilots should execute gentle banks, at a frequency which permits continuous visual scanning of the airspace about them, during climbs and descents in flight conditions which permit visual detection of other traffic.

Altitude and Course Requirements

During IFR operations in mountainous terrain, pilots may not operate below 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle, within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown (except for takeoff or landing). During IFR operations in nonmountainous terrain, pilots may not operate below 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle.

VFR cruising altitudes are based on magnetic course.

Communication Reports

The PIC of an aircraft operating under IFR in controlled airspace is required to report the following items as soon as possible:

1. Any unforecast weather.

2. The time and altitude passing each designated reporting point (including fixes used to define direct routes) except when in radar contact. (Resume normal position reporting when advised “Radar Contact Lost” or “Radar Service Terminated”).

3. Any other information relating to the safety of flight.

The pilot should also advise ATC immediately should any of the following malfunctions occur in flight:

1. Loss of VOR or ADF capability.

2. Complete or partial panel of ILS receiver capability.

3. Impairment of air/ground communications capability.

Some additional reports should be made without specific request from ATC. These include:

1. When an approach has been missed.

2. When leaving a previously assigned altitude for a newly assigned altitude.

3. When unable to climb or descend at a rate of at least 500 fpm.

4. Changing altitude when operating VFR-On-Top.

5. Change in average true airspeed of ±5% or 10 knots (whichever is greater) from that filed in the flight plan.

6. Time and altitude reaching a holding fix or clearance limit.

7. Leaving holding.

Additionally, when not in radar contact, a report should be made upon leaving the final approach fix inbound on final, and should a previously submitted estimate be made more than 3 minutes in error, a corrected estimate should be given to ATC.

Lost Communication Requirements

If unable to contact ATC on a newly assigned frequency, the pilot should go back to the previous frequency. If contact is lost on that frequency also, the pilot should attempt to establish contact with the nearest FSS. If it becomes apparent that two-way communication has been lost, the pilot should change the transponder to code 7600.

If communications are lost in VFR conditions, the pilot should remain VFR and land as soon as practicable.

Should the communication failure occur in IFR conditions, the pilot should proceed to the destination by:

1. Route:

a. The route assigned in the last ATC clearance; or

b. If being radar vectored, by the direct route to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance; or

c. If no route has been assigned, by the route the pilot was told to expect; or

d. In the absence of any of the above, by the route filed in the flight plan.

2. Altitude: At the highest of the following altitudes for the route segment being flown.

a. The altitude assigned in the last clearance received; or

b. The altitude ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance; or

c. The minimum enroute altitude (MEA).

If given holding instructions or a clearance limit, the pilot should leave that fix at the expect further clearance (EFC) time given. If holding is necessary in the terminal area, it should be depicted, or, if none is depicted, at the initial approach fix (IAF). If no holding was required en route, the pilot should proceed to the terminal area without delay and hold, maintaining the enroute altitude.

Descent for approach may begin upon arrival at the IAF, but not before the ETA shown on the flight plan, as amended with ATC. If an Expect Approach Clearance (EAC) time has been received, begin descent for the approach at that time.