Table of Contents

A crewmember is a person assigned to duty in the aircraft during flight. This includes pilots, flight engineers, navigators, flight attendants or anyone else assigned to duty in the airplane.

Operational control with respect to a flight, means the exercise of authority over initiating, conducting, or terminating a flight.

Stopway is an area designated for use in decelerating an aborted takeoff. It cannot be used as part of the takeoff distance but can be considered as part of the accelerate-stop distance.

V₂ (Takeoff Safety Speed) ensures that the airplane can maintain an acceptable climb gradient with the critical engine inoperative.

Accident Reports

Although "FAR" is used as the acronym for "Federal Aviation Regulations," and found throughout the regulations themselves and hundreds of other publications, the FAA is now actively discouraging its use. "FAR" also means "Federal Acquisition Regulations." To eliminate any possible confusion, the FAA cites the federal aviation regulations with reference to Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations. For example, "FAR Part 91.3" is referenced as "14 CFR Part 91 Section 3."

The operator of an aircraft shall immediately, and by the most expeditious means available, notify the nearest National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) field office when an aircraft accident occurs. The operator of the involved aircraft shall file a report within 10 days after an accident. An aircraft accident is defined as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and all such persons have disembarked, and in which any person suffers death or serious injury, or in which the aircraft receives substantial damage. Substantial damage is defined as damage or failure which adversely affects the structural strength, performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft, and which would normally require major repair or replacement of the affected component.

A serious injury, according to the NTSB, means any injury which:

1. Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days from the date of the injury;

2. Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose);

3. Causes severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage;

4. Involves any internal organ; or

5. Involves second- or third-degree burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface.

A report on an incident for which notification is required by NTSB §830.5(a) shall be filed only as requested by an authorized representative of the board. An immediate notification is also required for any incident involving:

1. Flight control system malfunction or failure;

2. Inability of any required flight crewmember to perform normal flight duties as a result of injury or illness;

3. Failure of structural components of a turbine engine excluding compressor and turbine blades and vanes;

4. Inflight fire;

5. Aircraft inflight collision;

6. Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair or fair market value in the event of total loss.

Required Documents

No person may act as pilot-in-command or in any other capacity as a required pilot flight crewmember of a civil aircraft of United States registry unless a current pilot certificate is in his/her possession, or readily accessible in the aircraft.

Except for balloon pilots piloting balloons and glider pilots piloting gliders, no person may act as pilot-in-command or in any other capacity as a required pilot flight crewmember of an aircraft unless an appropriate current medical certificate is in his/her possession, or readily accessible in the aircraft.

Except as provided in 14 CFR §91.715, no person may operate a civil aircraft unless it has within it the following:

1. An appropriate and current airworthiness certificate

2. A copy of the applicable operations specifications (operating limitations)

3. A registration certificate issued to its owner

No person may operate a U.S.-registered civil aircraft for which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight manual is required by 14 CFR §21.5 unless there is available in the aircraft a current approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual, approved manual material, markings, and placards or any combination thereof.

Each certificate holder's manual must contain enroute flight, navigation, and communication procedures for the dispatch, release or continuance of flight if any item of equipment required for the particular type of operation becomes inoperative or unserviceable en route.

When a cockpit voice recorder is required on an airplane, it must be operated continuously from the start of the use of the checklist (before starting engines for the purpose of flight), to completion of the final checklist at the termination of flight. Information recorded more than 30 minutes earlier may be erased or otherwise obliterated.

Medical Certificates

Student pilot, recreational pilot, and private pilot operations, other than glider and balloon pilots, require a Third-Class Medical Certificate. A Third-Class Medical Certificate expires at the end of:

1. The 60th month after the month of the date of the examination shown on the certificate if the person has not reached his or her 40th birthday on or before the date of examination; or

2. The 24th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the certificate if the person has reached his or her 40th birthday on or before the date of the examination.

The holder of a Second-Class Medical Certificate may exercise commercial privileges during the first 12 calendar months, but the certificate is valid only for private pilot privileges during the following (12 or 48) calendar months, depending on the applicant's age.

The holder of a First-Class Medical Certificate may exercise Airline Transport Pilot privileges during the first (6 or 12) calendar months, commercial privileges during the following (6 or 0) calendar months, and private pilot privileges during the following (12 or 48) calendar months, depending on the applicant's age. To state another way, a medical certificate may last 6 months to a year with 1st-class privileges, 12 months (from the date of the examination) with 2nd-class privileges, and 2 or 5 years with 3rd-class privileges - depending on whether the applicants is above or below 40 years of age.

Each type of medical certificate is valid through the last day of the month (of the month it expires), regardless of the day the physical examination was given.

Student Pilot Certification

A Student Pilot Certificate expires at the end of the 24th month after the month in which it is issued. To be eligible for a Student Pilot Certificate limited to airplanes, an applicant must be at least 16 years of age.

A student pilot may not operate an aircraft in solo flight unless the Student Pilot Certificate is endorsed, and unless within the preceding 90 days his/her pilot logbook has been endorsed by an authorized flight instructor who has provided instruction in the make and model of aircraft in which the solo flight is made, and who finds that the applicant is competent to make a safe solo flight in that aircraft.

A student pilot may not operate an aircraft in a solo cross-country flight, nor may he/she, except in an emergency, make a solo flight landing at any point other than the airport of takeoff, until he/she meets the requirements prescribed in Part 61. However, an authorized flight instructor may allow a student to practice solo takeoffs and landings at another airport within 25 NM from the airport at which the student receives instruction, if the instructor finds the student competent to make those landings and takeoffs, and the flight training specific to the destination airport (including the route to and from, takeoffs and landings, and traffic pattern entry and exit) has taken place. Also, the instructor must have flown with that student prior to authorizing those takeoffs and landings, and endorsed the student pilot's logbook accordingly.

The term cross-country flight means a flight beyond a radius of 25 nautical miles from the point of takeoff. A flight instructor must endorse a student pilot's logbook for solo cross-country flights. There are three types of these endorsements:

1. An endorsement in the student pilot's logbook that the instructor has reviewed the preflight planning and preparation for each solo cross-country flight, and the pilot is prepared to make the flight safely under the known circumstances and the conditions listed by the instructor in the logbook.

2. The instructor may also endorse the logbook for repeated solo cross-country flights under stipulated conditions over a course of not more than 50 nautical miles from the point of departure if he/she has given the student flight instruction in both directions over the route, including takeoffs and landings at the airports to be used.

3. The student pilot certificate must be endorsed for cross-country operations.

Prior to being authorized to conduct a solo flight, a student pilot must have received and logged instruction in the applicable maneuvers and procedures for the make and model of aircraft to be flown in solo flight, and must have demonstrated proficiency to an acceptable performance level as judged by the instructor who endorses the student's pilot certificate. As appropriate to the aircraft to be flown in solo flight, the student pilot must have received presolo flight training in:

1. Flight preparation procedures, including preflight inspections, powerplant operation, and aircraft systems

2. Taxiing or surface operations, including runups

3. Takeoffs and landings, including normal and crosswind

4. Straight-and-level flight and turns in both directions

5. Climbs and climbing turns

6. Airport traffic patterns, including entry and departure procedure, and collision, wind shear, and wake turbulence avoidance

7. Descents with and without turns, using high and low drag configurations

8. Flight at various airspeeds from cruise to slow flight

9. Stall entries from various flight attitudes and power combinations with recovery initiated at the first indication of a stall, and recovery from a full stall

10. Emergency procedures and equipment malfunctions

11. Ground reference maneuvers

12. Approaches to a landing area with simulated engine malfunctions

13. Slips to a landing

14. Go-arounds

Recreational Pilot Certification

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

The Recreational Pilot Certificate fits between the Student and Private Pilot Certificates. Recreational pilot limitations include: may not carry more than one passenger, pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight with a passenger (provided the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenses, or aircraft rental fees), fly an aircraft with more than 4 seats or with more than 180 HP nor with retractable landing gear, demonstrate an aircraft to a prospective buyer, fly between sunset and sunrise, or fly in airspace in which communication with air traffic control is required. Recreational pilots may fly beyond 50 NM from the departure airport with training and endorsements from an authorized instructor.

To be eligible for a Recreational Pilot Certificate, a person must be at least 17 years of age and must hold at least a current Third-Class Medical Certificate.

A recreational pilot who has logged fewer than 400 flight hours and who has not logged pilot-in-command time in an aircraft within the preceding 180 days may not act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft until he/she has received flight instruction from an authorized flight instructor who certifies in the pilot's logbook that the pilot is competent to act as pilot-in-command of the aircraft.

Private Pilot Certification

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

To be eligible for a Private Pilot Certificate with an airplane rating, a person must be at least 17 years of age, and hold at least a current Third-Class Medical Certificate. An applicant for a Private Pilot Certificate with an airplane rating must have had at least a total of 40 hours of flight instruction and solo flight time, which must include the following:

1. 3 hours of night instruction, including 10 takeoffs and landings and one cross-country flight over 100 NM

2. 3 hours of cross-country instruction, and 3 hours of instrument instruction from an authorized flight instructor and 5 hours of solo cross-country flight, each flight with a landing at a point more than 50 NM from the original departure point. One flight must be at least 150 NM, with landings at a minimum of 3 points, one of which is at least 50 NM from the original departure point.

A private pilot may act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft used in a passenger-carrying airlift sponsored by a charitable organization and for which the passengers make a donation to the organization, if he/she has logged at least 200 hours of flight time.

Commercial Pilot Certification

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

To be eligible for a Commercial Pilot Certificate, a person must be at least 18 years of age, and must hold at least a valid Third-Class Medical Certificate. A Second-Class Medical Certificate is required to exercise commercial pilot privileges. An applicant for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with an airplane rating must have a total of at least 250 hours of flight time as a pilot. This must include a total of at least 50 hours as pilot-in-command of cross-country flights.

A commercial airplane pilot must hold an instrument rating (airplane), or the Commercial Pilot Certificate is endorsed with a limitation prohibiting the carriage of passengers for hire in airplanes on cross-country flights of more than 50 nautical miles or at night.

Ground and Flight Instructor Certification

A Flight Instructor Certificate expires at the end of the 24th month after the month in which it was last issued or renewed. An applicant for a Flight Instructor Certificate must have received flight instruction from a flight instructor who has held a Flight Instructor Certificate during the 24 months immediately preceding the date the instruction is given, who meets the general requirements for a Flight Instructor Certificate, and who has given at least 200 hours of flight instruction. A person whose Flight Instructor Certificate is suspended may not apply for any rating to be added to that certificate during the period of suspension.

Each certificated flight instructor must sign the logbook for each person to whom he/she has given flight or ground instruction and specify in that book the amount of time and the date on which it was given. In addition, he/she shall maintain a record in his/her flight instructor logbook or in a separate document containing the following (the record required by this section shall be retained by the flight instructor separately or in his/her logbook for at least 3 years):

1. The name of each person whose logbook or student pilot certificate he/she has endorsed for solo flight privileges. The record must include the type and date of each endorsement.

2. The name of each person for whom he/she has signed a certification for a written, flight, or practical test, including the kind of test, date of his/her certification, and the result of the test.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Certificate who applies for an additional rating on that certificate must have had at least 15 hours as pilot-in-command in the category and class of aircraft appropriate to the rating sought.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Certificate may not conduct more than 8 hours of flight instruction in any period of 24 consecutive hours. The ATP may not instruct for more than 8 hours in one day nor more than 36 hours in a 7-day period.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Certificate may not endorse a Student Pilot Certificate for solo cross-country flight privileges unless he/she has given that student pilot flight instruction required by this part for the endorsement and considers that the student is prepared to conduct the flight safely with the aircraft involved. Neither may he/she endorse a student pilot's logbook for local solo flight unless he/she has given that student pilot flight instruction and found that student pilot prepared for solo flight in the type of aircraft involved.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Certificate may not authorize a student to make a solo flight unless he/she possesses a valid Student Pilot Certificate endorsed for solo in the make and model aircraft to be flown.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Certificate may not give flight instruction required for the issuance of a certificate or a category, or class rating in a multi-engine airplane or a helicopter unless he/she has had at least 5 hours of experience as pilot-in-command in the make and model of that airplane or helicopter, as the case may be.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Certificate may have his/her certificate renewed for an additional period of 24 months if he/she passes the practical test for a Flight Instructor Certificate and the rating involved, or those portions of that test that the Administrator considers necessary to determine his/her competency as a flight instructor.

The Flight Instructor certificate may be renewed without taking the practical test if the record of instruction shows that he/she is a competent flight instructor or he/she completes an instructor refresher course within 3 months of the application for renewal.

The holder of an expired Flight Instructor Certificate may exchange that certificate for a new certificate by passing the practical test prescribed in 14 CFR §61.187. He/she may not renew it by any other means.

A person who holds a basic ground instructor rating is authorized to provide ground training in the aeronautical knowledge areas required for the issuance of a recreational or private pilot certificate, ground training required for a recreational and private pilot flight review, and a recommendation for a knowledge test required for the issuance of a recreational or private pilot certificate.

A person who holds an advanced ground instructor rating is authorized to provide ground training in the aeronautical knowledge areas required for the issuance of any certificate or rating, ground training for any flight review, and a recommendation for a knowledge test required for the issuance of any certificate.

A person who holds an instrument ground instructor rating is authorized to provide ground training in the aeronautical knowledge areas required for an instrument rating, ground training required for an instrument proficiency check, and a recommendation for a knowledge test required for an instrument rating.

The holder of a ground instructor certificate may not perform the duties of a ground instructor unless, within the preceding 12 months, the person has served for at least 3 months as a ground instructor, or the person has received an endorsement from an authorized ground or flight instructor certifying that the person has demonstrated satisfactory proficiency in the subject areas required for a ground instructor.

Flight Instruction, Reviews and Records

All time logged as flight training, instrument flight training, pilot ground trainer training, or ground training time must be certified by an appropriately rated and certificated instructor from whom it was received.

No person may act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months, that person has accomplished a flight review, in an aircraft for which he/she is rated, by an appropriately certificated instructor or other person designated by the Administrator, and has had his/her logbook endorsed by that person who gave him/her the review certifying that he/she has satisfactorily accomplished the flight review.

The flight review consists of a minimum of 1 hour of ground instruction and 1 hour of flight training.

The aeronautical training and experience used to meet the requirements for a certificate or rating, or the recent flight experience requirements, must be shown by a reliable record. The logging of other flight time is not required.

Required Endorsements

A student pilot may not operate an aircraft on a solo flight in Class B airspace unless:

1. The student pilot has received both ground and flight instruction from an authorized instructor in Class B airspace and the flight instruction was received in the specific Class B airspace for which solo flight is authorized.

2. The logbook of that student pilot has been endorsed within the preceding 90 days for conducting solo flight in that specific Class B airspace by the instructor who gave the flight training; and

3. The logbook endorsement specifies that the student pilot has received the required ground and flight instruction and has been found competent to conduct solo flight in that specific Class B airspace.

A person holding a Private or Commercial Pilot Certificate may not act as pilot-in-command of an airplane that has more than 200 horsepower, or that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable propeller, unless he/she has received ground and flight instruction from an authorized flight instructor who has certified in his/her logbook that he/she is competent to pilot an airplane that has more than 200 horsepower, or that has retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable propeller, as the case may be. However, this instruction is not required if he/she has logged flight time as pilot-in-command of a high-performance airplane before August 4, 1997.

No person may act as pilot-in-command of a pressurized airplane which operates above 25,000 feet MSL unless he/she has completed the training required by 14 CFR §61.31 and has his/her logbook so endorsed.

No person may act as pilot-in-command of a tail wheel airplane unless that pilot has received flight instruction from an authorized flight instructor in normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings, wheel landings, (unless the airplane manufacturer has recommended against such landings), and go around procedures in a tail wheel airplane. The instructor then makes an endorsement in the pilot's logbook certifying the pilot is competent in the above mentioned maneuvers. This endorsement is not required if the pilot has logged flight time as pilot-in-command of a tail wheel airplane prior to April 15, 1991.

A person who acts as a pilot in command of any of the following aircraft must hold a type rating for that aircraft: large aircraft, defined as any aircraft of more than 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff weight (except lighter-than-air), turbojet-powered airplanes, other aircraft specified by the Administrator through aircraft type certificate procedures.

Pilot Tests

An applicant for an FAA Knowledge Exam must have proper identification at the time of application that contains the applicant's photograph, signature, date of birth, and residential address. To be eligible for a flight test for a certificate or an aircraft or instrument rating issued under this part, the applicant must have passed any required knowledge test since the beginning of the 24th month before the month in which he/she takes the flight test. The applicant must hold a current medical certificate appropriate to the certificate he/she seeks, or in the case of a rating to be added to his/her pilot certificate, at least a current Third-Class Medical Certificate. The applicant must have a written statement from an authorized instructor certifying that he/she has given the applicant flight instruction in preparation for the flight test within 60 days preceding the date of application, and finds him/her competent to pass the test and to have satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas in which he/she has shown to be deficient by his/her FAA knowledge test report.

An applicant for a knowledge or flight test who fails that test may apply for retesting upon presenting a written statement from an authorized instructor certifying that he/she has given flight or ground instruction as appropriate to the applicant and finds him/her competent to pass the test.

No person whom the Administrator finds to have committed an act prohibited by paragraph (a) of 14 CFR §61.37 is eligible for any airman or ground instructor certificate or rating or to take any test for a period of 1 year after the date of that act. In addition, the commission of that act is a basis for suspending or revoking any airman or ground instructor certificate or rating held by that person. Paragraph (a) includes:

1. Copying or intentionally removing a knowledge test

2. Giving to another, or receiving from another, any part or copy of that test

3. Giving help on that test to, or receiving help on that test from any person during the period that test is being given

4. Taking any part of that test in behalf of another person

5. Using any material or aid during the period that test is being given.

Presolo Requirements

Before being authorized to fly solo, a student pilot must satisfactorily complete a knowledge examination covering the appropriate portions of 14 CFR Parts 61 and 91 that are applicable to student pilots, and the flight characteristics and operational limitations for the make and model aircraft to be flown. This examination must be administered and graded by the instructor who endorses the student's pilot certificate for solo flight.

Recency of Experience

No person may act as pilot-in-command of any aircraft carrying passengers during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise (as published in the American Air Almanac) unless, within the preceding 90 days, he/she has made at least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop during that period in the category, class, and type (if a type rating is required) of aircraft to be used.

No person may act as pilot-in-command of any aircraft carrying passengers, or of an aircraft certificated for more than one required pilot flight crewmember, unless, within the preceding 90 days, he/she has made at least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in an aircraft of the same category and class, and if a type rating is required, of the same type. If the aircraft is a tail wheel airplane, the landings must have been made to a full stop in a tail wheel airplane.

A person may log instrument time only for that flight time when the person operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions.

Change of Permanent Mailing Address

The holder of a Pilot or Flight Instructor Certificate who has made a change in his/her permanent mailing address may not, after 30 days from the date he/she moved, exercise the privileges of his/her certificate unless he/she has notified in writing the Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Certification Branch, Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125 of his/her new address.

Glider Towing

No pilot may act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft towing a glider unless that person

1. Holds at least a private pilot certificate with a category rating for powered aircraft;
2. Has logged at least 100 hours PIC in the aircraft category/class/type being used for the tow;
3. Has a logbook endorsement certifying ground and flight training in gliders;
4. Has logged 3 flights as the sole manipulator of the controls under a qualified tow pilot's supervision.

The holder of a glider rating issued prior to August 4, 1997, is considered to be in compliance with the training and logbook endorsement requirements of this paragraph for the specific operating privilege for which the holder is already qualified.

Emergency Deviation from Rules

In an emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot-in-command of an aircraft may deviate from the Federal Aviation Regulations to the extent required to meet that emergency.

Each pilot-in-command who is given priority by ATC in an emergency, shall, if requested by ATC, submit a detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the chief of that ATC facility.

Preflight Planning

Each pilot-in-command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. This includes, for a flight under IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport, weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which he/she has been advised by ATC. For any flight, pilots should become familiar with runway lengths at airports of intended use, and the appropriate takeoff and landing distance information. Flotation gear must be readily accessible to each occupant in the aircraft if a flight is being conducted for hire over water and beyond power-off gliding distance from shore.

Use of Seatbelts

During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight crewmember shall be at his/her station unless his/her absence is necessary in the performance of duties in connection with the operation of the aircraft or in connection with physiological needs, and keep the seatbelt fastened while at his/her station.

No person may take off or land a U.S.-registered civil aircraft (except balloons that incorporate baskets or gondolas and airships) unless the pilot-in-command of that aircraft ensures that each person on board has been notified to fasten his/her safety belt and shoulder harness, if installed.

Alcohol and Drugs

Except in an emergency, no pilot of a civil aircraft may allow a person who appears to be intoxicated or who demonstrates by manner or physical indications that the individual is under the influence of drugs (except a medical patient under proper care) to be carried in that aircraft.

No person may act or attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft within 8 hours after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage or while having .04% by weight or more alcohol in the blood.

A conviction for the violation of any Federal or state statute relating to the growing, processing, manufacture, sale, disposition, possession, transportation, or importation of narcotic drugs, marijuana, or depressant or stimulant drugs or substances is grounds for: (1) denial of an application for any certificate or rating issued under 14 CFR Part 61 for a period of up to 1 year after the date of final conviction; or (2) suspension or revocation of any certificate or rating issued under 14 CFR Part 61.

Parachutes

Unless each occupant of the aircraft is wearing an approved parachute, no pilot of a civil aircraft, carrying any person (other than a crewmember), may execute any intentional maneuver that exceeds a bank of 60° relative to the horizon, or a nose-up or nose-down attitude of 30° relative to the horizon. This does not apply to spins and other maneuvers required for a certificate or rating if given by a certified flight instructor.

No pilot of a civil aircraft may allow a parachute that is available for emergency use to be carried in that aircraft unless it is an approved type and if a chair-type (canopy in back), it has been packed by a certificated and appropriately-rated parachute rigger within the preceding 120 days.

Safety Pilot Requirements

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

No person may operate a civil aircraft in simulated instrument flight unless that aircraft has fully functioning dual controls, and an appropriately-rated pilot occupies the other seat as safety pilot.

Fuel Reserve Requirements

No person may begin a flight in an airplane under VFR unless (considering wind and forecast weather conditions) there is enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, during daylight, to fly after that for at least 30 minutes. At night, the required amount of reserve is enough to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, at night, to fly after that for at least 45 minutes.

Transponder Requirements

A coded transponder with altitude reporting capability is required for flight in all airspace of the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia at and above 10,000 feet MSL and below the floor of a Class A airspace, excluding the airspace at and below 2,500 feet AGL.

ATC may authorize deviations on a continuing basis, or for individual flights, for operations of aircraft without a transponder, in which case the request for a deviation must be submitted to the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace concerned at least 1 hour before the proposed operation.

Minimum Equipment Lists

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

An aircraft can be operated with inoperative instruments or equipment under the provisions of a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) if the aircraft has within it a letter of authorization, issued by the FAA Flight Standards District Office having jurisdiction over the area in which the operator is located, authorizing operation of the aircraft under the Minimum Equipment List. The MEL lists the equipment that can be inoperative and still not affect the airworthiness of the aircraft.

Supplemental Oxygen

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

No person may operate a civil aircraft of U.S. registry at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet MSL, unless each occupant of the aircraft is provided with supplemental oxygen. When operating above 12,500 feet MSL, up to and including 14,000 feet MSL, the flight crew must be provided with and use oxygen for that time that is more than 30 minutes duration.

Lighting Requirements

Aircraft operating under night VFR must have an approved aviation red or aviation white anticollision light system. No person may, during the period from sunset to sunrise, operate an aircraft unless it has lighted position lights. No person may, during the period from to sunset to sunrise, park or move an aircraft in a night-flight operation area of an airport unless the aircraft is clearly illuminated, has lighted position lights, or is in an area which is marked by obstruction lights.

Aircraft on the ground and in the air, and vehicles on the airport, can be controlled from the tower by light signals. The meaning of the various signals is shown in the table in Figure 8-1.


Figure 8-1. Light signals from the tower

Emergency Locator Transmitter

Aircraft, while engaged in training operations conducted entirely within a 50-mile radius of the airport from which local flight operation began, are not required to have an Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) installed.

Batteries used in the emergency locator transmitters must be replaced (or recharged, if the battery is rechargeable) when the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour. The new expiration date for the replacement (or recharge) of the battery must be legibly marked on the outside of the emergency locator transmitter and entered in the aircraft maintenance record.

No person may operate the aircraft more than 90 days after the ELT is initially removed from the aircraft for maintenance. ELTs must be inspected within 12 calendar months after the last inspection for (1) proper installation, (2) battery corrosion, (3) operation of the controls and crash sensor, and (4) the presence of a sufficient signal radiated from its antenna.

Formation Flights and Right-of-Way

No person may operate an aircraft, carrying passengers for hire, in formation flight.

Aircraft, while on final approach to land, or while landing, have the right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating on the surface. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land, or to overtake that aircraft. When aircraft are approaching each other head-on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.

Maximum Authorized Speeds

Note: Sport Pilot Instructors can disregard this section.

Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, no person may operate an aircraft below 10,000 feet MSL at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 knots (288 MPH). Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within 4 NM of Class C or D airspace at an Indicated Airspeed (IAS) of more than 200 knots (230 MPH). No person may operate an aircraft in the airspace underlying a Class B airspace, or in a VFR corridor designated through a Class B airspace at an Indicated Airspeed of more than 200 knots (230 MPH).

Acrobatic Flight

Acrobatic flight means an intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in an aircraft's attitude, an abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration not necessary for normal flight. No person may operate an aircraft in acrobatic flight below an altitude of 1,500 feet above the surface, nor when flight visibility is less than 3 miles.

Distance from Obstructions

No person shall operate an aircraft over a congested area below an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft. No person shall operate an aircraft over a sparsely populated area any closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure. Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft anywhere below an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface.

Flight Plan Airspeed

The flight plan should include the cruising altitude (or flight level) and the true airspeed for that altitude.

Flight from Noncontrolled Airports

Any person departing an airport without an operating control tower shall comply with any FAA traffic pattern established for that airport.

VFR Cruising Altitudes

Cruising altitudes to be used when operating VFR above 3,000 feet AGL are based on the magnetic course being flown. While operating VFR above 3,000 feet AGL, but below 18,000 feet MSL, an aircraft flying a magnetic course between 000° and 179° inclusive shall fly at odd thousands plus 500 feet. An aircraft flying a magnetic course between 180° and 359° inclusive shall fly at even thousands plus 500 feet.

Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance and Alterations

No person may operate an aircraft, unless, within the preceding 12 calendar months, it has had an annual inspection in accordance with Part 43 of the regulations and has been approved for return to service by a person authorized by §43.7 of the regulations.

No inspection performed may be substituted for an annual inspection unless it is performed by a person authorized to perform annual inspections and is entered as an "annual" inspection in the required maintenance records. If an annual inspection is performed on July 12, this year, the next annual will be due no later than July 31, next year.

No person may operate an aircraft carrying any person (other than a crewmember) for hire, and no person may give flight instruction for hire in an aircraft which that person provides, unless within the preceding 100 hours of time in service it has received an annual or 100-hour inspection and has been approved for return to service in accordance with Part 43 of the regulations. The 100-hour limit may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place where the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be done must be included in computing the next 100 hours' time in service.

An Airworthiness Directive is a regulatory notice sent out by the Federal Aviation Administration to the registered owner of an aircraft informing him/her of the discovery of a condition that keeps his/her aircraft from continuing to meet its conditions for airworthiness. It is the responsibility of the owner or operator of an aircraft to maintain that aircraft in an airworthy condition, including compliance with all Airworthiness Directives within the required time limit. The fact of compliance, the date of compliance, and the method of compliance must be recorded in the aircraft maintenance records.

No person may carry any person (other than crewmembers) in an aircraft that has been maintained, rebuilt, or altered in a manner that may have appreciably changed its flight characteristics or substantially affected its operation in flight until an appropriately-rated pilot with at least a Private Pilot Certificate flies the aircraft, makes an operational check of the maintenance performed or alteration made, and logs the flight in the aircraft records.

No person may use an ATC transponder unless within the preceding 24 calendar months it has been tested and inspected and found to comply with Appendix F of Part 43 of the regulations.

Rotorcraft Regulations

Helicopters may be operated at less than the minimums prescribed for other aircraft if the operation is conducted without hazard to persons or property on the surface. When the visibility is less than 1 mile during day hours or less than 3 miles during night hours, a helicopter may be operated clear of clouds if operated at a speed that allows the pilot adequate opportunity to see any air traffic or obstruction in time to avoid a collision. A helicopter may be operated within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of class B, C, D or E airspace designated for an airport at night under special VFR if it remains clear of clouds. The restrictions that apply to the aircraft being equipped for IFR flight do not apply to helicopters.

No person may begin a flight in a rotorcraft under VFR unless (considering wind and forecast weather conditions) there is enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after that for at least 20 minutes.

Problem:

According to 14 CFR Part 91, how much farther can a rotorcraft be flown under VFR?

Usable fuel at takeoff............................................36 gallons

Fuel consumption rate............................................12.4 gal/hr

Constant ground speed............................................140 knots

Flight time since takeoff............................................48 minutes

Solution:

1. Divide the usable fuel at takeoff by the fuel consumption rate to find the length of time the fuel will allow you to fly.

36 ÷12.4 = 2.9 hours, or 2 hours and 54 minutes

2. You have already flown for 48 minutes, so you have enough fuel left for 2 hours and 6 minutes.

2:54 - 0:48 = 2:06

3. Allowing for the required 20 minutes of reserve fuel, you have 1 hour and 46 minutes of usable fuel.

2:06 - 0:20 = 1:46

4. In 1 hour and 46 minutes (1.77 hours), at a ground speed of 140 knots, this fuel will carry you for 247 nautical miles.

140 x 1.77 = 247 NM

This problem can be quickly and accurately worked on the CX-2 Pathfinder:

1. Find the total amount of flight time provided by the usable fuel at takeoff.

2. Enter the Endurance program.

3. Enter the 36 gallons of usable fuel at takeoff.

4. Enter the fuel consumption rate of 12.4 gallons per hour.

5. The total time provided by the 36 gallons of fuel appears on the display.

6. Enter this 02:54:12 to find the amount of time available.

7. Subtract the 48 minutes already flown. The total time remaining of 02:06:12 appears.

8. Subtract the 20 minutes that you must have for rotorcraft VFR operation under 14 CFR §91.151. 1 hour, 46 minutes, 12 seconds of fuel are available for use.

9. Enter the Dist Fln program and enter the time of 01:46:12.

10. Enter the ground speed of 140 knots.

11. 247.8 shows on the display. This is the additional distance in nautical miles that can be flown and still have the 20 minutes reserve as required by 14 CFR §91.151.

All aircraft operating in Class C airspace must have an operable two-way radio and a transponder with altitude reporting capability.

To be eligible for a Student Pilot Certificate limited to helicopters, an applicant must be at least 16 years of age. An applicant for a Private Pilot Certificate with a rotorcraft category and helicopter class rating must have at least the following aeronautical experience: A minimum of 40 hours of flight instruction and solo flight time in aircraft, 19 of which must be in helicopters. An applicant for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with a rotorcraft category rating and a helicopter class rating must have at least 150 hours of flight time as a pilot, including at least 100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours of which must be in a helicopter.

Gyroplane Regulations

To be eligible for a Student Pilot Certificate limited to gyroplanes, an applicant must be at least 16 years of age. An applicant for a Private Pilot Certificate with a rotorcraft category rating and a gyroplane class rating must have at least 40 hours of flight instruction and solo time in aircraft. He/she must have at least 10 hours of solo time, 10 hours of which must be in a gyroplane. An applicant for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with a rotorcraft category rating and a gyroplane class rating must have at least 150 hours of flight time as a pilot, including at least 100 hours in powered aircraft, 25 hours of which must be in a gyroplane.

Glider Regulations

The flight review required by 14 CFR Part 61 consists of a minimum of 3 instructional flights in a glider, each of which includes a flight to traffic pattern altitude, and 1 hour of ground instruction; or 1 hour of flight instruction in a glider and 1 hour of ground instruction.

To be eligible for a Student Pilot Certificate limited to gliders, an applicant must be at least 14 years of age. An applicant for a category rating to be added on his/her pilot certificate must meet the requirements for the issuance of the pilot certificate appropriate to the privileges for which the category rating is sought. But, the holder of a category rating for powered aircraft is not required to take a knowledge test for the addition of a glider rating on his/her pilot certificate. An applicant for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with a glider rating must have at least 25 hours as pilot in gliders and 100 glider flights as pilot in command.

An applicant for an initial Glider Flight Instructor Certificate must have received flight instruction from a flight instructor who has held a Flight Instructor Certificate during the 24 months immediately preceding the date the instruction is given, who meets the general requirements for a Flight Instructor Certificate, and who has given at least 80 hours of glider flight instruction.