Chapter 5
Operations

Introduction

Before each flight, the remote PIC must perform tasks to ensure that the sUAS is in a condition for safe operation. This preflight inspection should be conducted in accordance with the sUAS manufacturer’s inspection procedures when available (usually found in the manufacturer’s owner or maintenance manual) and/or an inspection procedure developed by the sUAS owner or operator.

Such inspections should focus on evaluating equipment for damage or other malfunction(s). The preflight check should be performed prior to each flight and include an appropriate UAS preflight inspection that is specific and scalable to the sUAS, the program, and the operation. This should encompass the entire system in order to determine a continual condition for safe operation prior to flight. If manufacturers do not provide a preflight checklist or guide, remote PICs should create their own guidelines to properly check all components critical to the safety and operation of flight.

An example of a common issue with sUAS is propeller damage or installation issues. Propeller blades can have nicks, cracks, bends, etc., that significantly degrade the structural integrity of the blade and could potentially impact the controllability and overall safety of the sUAS. Also, propeller installation must be done per the manufacturer guidelines. Failure to do so can lead to separation of the blade inflight, loss of control, damage to the sUAS, and/or injury to the user or other persons in the area.

Another important item to consider during the preflight inspection is the security of panels, doors, and other components as well as the security of attachments of object such as the camera, antennae, and the battery. Batteries should be inspected for damage or malfunctions. If a battery is “bloated” or looks abnormal in anyway, it should not be used or charged. A good practice is to turn on the engine(s)/motor(s) to ensure they are working properly followed by a brief, low altitude test flight to verify controllability, radio link, and system integrity.

At minimum, the preflight inspection should include a visual or functional check of the following items:

1. Visual condition inspection of the sUAS components.

2. Airframe structure (including undercarriage), all flight control surfaces, and linkages.

3. Registration markings, for proper display and legibility.

4. Moveable control surfaces, including airframe attachment points.

5. Servo motor(s), including attachment point(s).

6. Propulsion system, including powerplants, propellers, rotors, ducted fans, etc.

7. Verify all systems (e.g., aircraft and control unit) have an adequate energy (fuel/battery) supply for the intended operation and are functioning properly.

8. Avionics, including control link transceiver, communication/navigation equipment, and antennas.

9. Calibrate sUAS compass prior to all flights.

10. Control link transceiver, communication/navigation data link transceiver, and antennas.

11. Display panel, if used, is functioning properly.

12. Ground support equipment, including takeoff and landing systems, for proper operation.

13. Control link correct functionality is established between the aircraft and the CS.

14. Correct movement of control surfaces using the CS.

15. Onboard navigation and communication data links.

16. Flight termination system, if installed.

17. Fuel, for correct type and quantity; and/or

18. Battery levels for the aircraft and CS.

19. All equipment (cameras, etc.) is securely attached.

20. Verify communication with sUAS and that the sUAS has acquired GPS location (if applicable to the operation and/or aircraft).

21. Start the sUAS propellers to inspect for any imbalance or irregular operation.

22. Verify all controller operations for accuracy and display of heading and altitude (if available).

23. If required by flight path walk through, verify any noted obstructions that may interfere with the sUAS.

24. At a controlled low altitude, fly within range of any interference and recheck all controls and stability.

25. Confirm any and all software, controller, or aircraft settings to ensure they have been properly set for the impending flight or mission.

Communication Procedures

The FAA requires that the remote PIC and other crewmembers coordinate to:

1. Scan the airspace in the operational area for any potential collision hazard; and

2. Maintain awareness of the position of the sUAS through direct visual observation.

To achieve this goal, the remote PIC should:

• Foster an environment where open communication is encouraged and expected among the entire crew to maximize team performance.

• Establish effective communication procedures prior to flight.

• Select an appropriate method of communication, such as the use of hand-held radio or other effective means that would not create a distraction and allows all crewmembers to understand each other.

• Inform the crew as conditions change about any needed adjustments to ensure a safe outcome of the operation.

One way to accomplish effective communications procedures is to have a VO maintain visual contact with the sUA and maintain awareness of the surrounding airspace, and then communicate flight status and any hazards to the remote PIC and person manipulating the controls so that appropriate action can be taken. The remote PIC should evaluate which method is most appropriate for the operation and should be determined prior to flight.

Aviation has a language all its own to facilitate communication between all participants. These participants include both ATC and pilots, often communicating in a busy and noisy environment. The most important component to effective communications is understanding between the parties involved. Brevity is important, and contacts should be kept as brief as possible. Basic communication procedures include:

• Listen before you transmit.

• Think before keying your transmitter.

• Place the microphone (mic) close to your lips and after pressing the mic button, speak in a normal, conversational tone.

• Be alert both to sounds as well as a lack of sounds, which could indicate lost or broken communications.

The phonetic alphabet is used in aviation communications by both ATC facilities and pilots. Use the phonetic equivalents for single letters and to spell out groups of letters or difficult words during adverse communications conditions. See Figure 5-1.

Figure 5-1. Phonetic alphabet

Figures indicating hundreds and thousands in round numbers as used in weather reports or for altitudes should include both the first number of the hundred/thousand and then followed by the quantity descriptor(s). For example, “500” should be spoken “fife hundred.” Another example, “4,500” should be annunciated “four thousand five hundred.” The number nine is spoken “niner” and the number five is spoken “fife” to further help alleviate confusion over the radio waves and to avoid confusion among languages (“nine” sounds like the German word for no: “nein”).

The three digits for course, heading or wind direction should be magnetic and spoken individually. The word “true” should be added when it applies. For example, magnetic heading 360 would be spoken “three six zero.”

Speed should be followed by the words “knots” or “mile per hour.” For example, the speed 87 knots is spoken “eighty-seven knots.”

Time is measured in relation to the rotation of the Earth. A day is defined as the time required for the earth to make one complete revolution of 360°. Since the day is divided into 24 hours, it follows that the earth revolves at the rate of 15° each hour. Thus, lines of longitude may be expressed as 90° apart, the first of which is 6 hours west of Greenwich. Twenty-four time zones have been established. Each time zone is approximately 15° of longitude in width, with the first zone centered on the meridian of Greenwich. For most aviation operations, time is expressed in terms of the 24-hour clock (for example, 8 a.m. is expressed as 0800; 2 p.m. is 1400; 11 p.m. is 2300) and may be either local or Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). UTC is the time at the prime meridian and is represented in aviation operations by the letter “Z,” referred to as “Zulu time” and is not adjusted for daylight savings time. For example, 1500Z would be spoken as “one five zero zero Zulu.”

Initial transmissions to ATC should contain the following elements:

• Who you are—aircraft’s complete call sign.

• Where you are located (either in reference to an airport, geographical location, or point on an airport).

• What you want to do or need to do—you should think about what you want to say before communicating it.

Call signs should be spoken in their entirety the first time. Never abbreviate on initial contact or any time other aircraft call signs have similar numbers/sounds or identical letters/numbers. Standard phraseology should be used at all times. See Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-2. Standard aviation phraseology

When ATC authorization is required (at or near an airport with a control tower and/or when operating within controlled airspace), such permission must be requested and granted before any operation in that airspace. When ATC authorization is not required (at or near an airport without a control tower and/or when operating within uncontrolled airspace), remote PICs should monitor the CTAF to stay aware of manned aircraft communications and operations. Manned pilots will self-announce their position and intentions on the CTAF, consistent with recommended traffic advisory procedures. It is helpful to announce sUAS operations on the CTAF to increase local pilots’ situational awareness, as well as potentially increase the safe interaction among manned and unmanned aircraft. Use standard phraseology at all times so as not to confuse manned pilots or other operators on the frequency.

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a continuous broadcast of non-control information in selected high-activity terminal areas. ATIS frequencies are listed in the Chart Supplement U.S. To relieve frequency congestion, pilots are urged to listen to ATIS, and on initial contact, to advise controllers that the information has been received by repeating the alphabetical code word appended to the broadcast. For example: “information Sierra received.”

At airports with operating air traffic control towers (ATCT), approval must be obtained prior to advancing an aircraft onto the movement area. Ground control frequencies are provided to reduce congestion on the tower frequency. They are used for issuance of taxi information, clearances, and other necessary contacts. If instructed by ground control to “taxi to” a particular runway, the pilot must stop prior to crossing any runway. A clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runway. Aircraft arriving at an airport where a control tower is in operation should not change to ground control frequency until directed to do so by ATC.

The key to operating at an airport without an operating control tower is selection of the correct CTAF, which is identified in the Chart Supplement U.S. and on the Sectional Chart. CTAF is the frequency on which pilots (manned and unmanned) announce their intentions, location, or other pertinent information and monitor the intentions, location, etc. conveyed by other pilots in the area. If the airport has a part-time ATCT, the CTAF is usually a tower frequency. Where there is no tower, UNICOM, (if available) is usually the CTAF. UNICOM is limited to the necessities of safe and expeditious operation of private aircraft pertaining to runways and wind conditions, types of fuel available, weather, and dispatching. UNICOM may also transmit information concerning ground transportation, food, lodging and services available during transit. When no tower, FSS, or UNICOM is available, use the MULTICOM frequency 122.9 for self-announce procedures.

Often, there is more than one airport using the same frequency. To avoid confusion, be sure to state the airport name, followed by the term “traffic” (addressing other aircraft in the area) as part of the beginning and end of the transmission. For example, “Manatee traffic, unmanned aircraft XYZ is operating at 200 AGL approximately 3 NM south of the airport, Manatee traffic.” See Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3. Summary of recommended communications procedures

Although it is unlikely that ATC will be able to track unmanned aircraft in the near future, they may issue information about traffic that is in the vicinity of sUAS operations. Traffic advisories given by ATC will refer to the other aircraft by azimuth in terms of the 12-hour clock, with twelve o’clock being the direction of flight (track), not aircraft heading. Each hourly position is equal to 30°. For example, an aircraft heading 090° is advised of traffic at the three o’clock position. The remote PIC (and any VO or crew) should look 90° to the right of the direction of flight of the sUAS, or to the south of the area of operation/sUA. Remote pilots should be aware that traffic information is based upon the track observed on radar, thus if traffic advisories about your operation are conveyed to manned aircraft, they may indicate a slight difference in the perceived location of observed aircraft and the actual location of such aircraft. See Figure 5-4.

Figure 5-4. Traffic advisories are issued based on direction of flight, not the aircraft heading

Emergency Procedures

Follow any manufacturer guidance for appropriate response procedures in abnormal or emergency situations prior to flight. In case of an inflight emergency, the remote PIC is permitted to deviate from any rule of Part 107 to the extent necessary to meet that emergency. FAA may request a written report explaining the deviation. Review emergency actions during preflight planning and inform crewmembers of their responsibilities.

The remote PIC must be prepared to respond to abnormal and emergency situations during sUAS operations. Refer to the manufacturer’s guidance for appropriate procedures in the following situations:

• Abnormal situations, such as lost link, alternate landing/recovery sites, loss of GPS, loss of video link, avoidance of proximate manned or unmanned aircraft, and flight termination (controlled flight to the ground).

• Emergency situations, such as flyaways, loss of control link, avoidance of manned or unmanned aircraft in imminent danger of colliding with the sUAS, and battery fires.

Aeronautical Decision Making

A remote PIC should use a variety of different resources to safely operate an sUAS and needs to be able to manage these resources effectively. An sUAS operation may involve one individual or a team of crewmembers, as follows:

• The remote PIC who holds a current Remote Pilot Certificate with an sUAS Rating and has the final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the sUAS;

• A person manipulating the controls operates the sUAS under direct supervision of the remote PIC;

• A VO acts as a flight crewmember to help see and avoid air traffic or other objects in the sky, overhead, or on the ground; and/or

• Other persons associated with the operation of the sUAS acting as part of the designated crew.

A culture of safety must be established with all commercial sUAS operations. Many techniques from manned aircraft operations apply to the operation of unmanned aircraft. Examples include situational awareness, risk-based aeronautical decision making (ADM), crew resource management (CRM), and safety management systems (SMS).

The remote PIC attains situational awareness by obtaining as much information as possible prior to a flight and becoming familiar with the performance capabilities of the sUAS, weather conditions, surrounding airspace, privacy issues, and ATC requirements. Sources of information include a weather briefing, ATC, FAA, local pilots, local laws and ordinances, as well as landowners.

Technology, such as GPS, mapping systems, and computer applications, can assist in collecting and managing information to improve your situational awareness and risk-based ADM. ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

CRM is the effective use of all available resources—human, hardware, and information—prior to and during flight to ensure a successful outcome of the operation. The remote PIC must integrate CRM techniques into all phases of the sUAS operation. Many of these techniques traditionally used in manned aircraft operations are also applicable for sUAS, such as the ability to:

• Delegate operational tasks and manage crewmembers;

• Recognize and address hazardous attitudes;

• Establish effective team communication procedures; and

• Be open to questions and concerns of any and all crewmembers.

Risk management is part of the decision-making process which relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight. Sound risk management skills will help prevent and break the final “link” in the accident chain.

An SMS is a formal, top-down business-like approach to managing safety risk, which includes a systemic approach to managing safety, including the necessary organizational structures, accountabilities, policies, and procedures.

The remote PIC identifies, delegates, and manages tasks for each sUAS operation. Tasks can vary greatly depending on the complexity of the sUAS operation. Supporting crewmembers can help accomplish those tasks and ensure the safety of flight. For example, VOs and other ground crew can provide valuable information about traffic, airspace, weather, equipment, and aircraft loading and performance. The remote PIC:

• Assesses the operating environment (airspace, surrounding terrain, weather, hazards, etc.).

• Determines the appropriate number of crewmembers that are needed to safely conduct a given operation. The remote PIC must ensure sufficient crew support so that no one on the team becomes over-tasked, which increases the possibility of an incident or accident.

• Informs participants of delegated tasks and sets expectations.

• Manages and supervises the crew to ensure that everyone completes their assigned tasks.

Hazardous attitudes can affect unmanned operations if the remote PIC is not aware of the hazards, leading to situations such as:

• Falling behind in the progress of the aircraft/situation;

• Operating without adequate fuel/battery reserve;

• Loss of positional or situational awareness;

• Operating outside the unmanned aircraft flight envelope; and

• Failure to complete all flight planning tasks, preflight inspections, and checklists.

Operational pressure is a contributor to becoming subject to these pitfalls. Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes that can interfere with the ability to make sound decisions and properly exercise authority: anti-authority, impulsivity, invulnerability, “machoism,” and resignation. See Figure 5-5. Remote PICs should be alert to recognize hazardous attitudes (in themselves or in other crewmembers), bring attention to and label actions deemed to be hazardous, and correct the behavior.

Figure 5-5. Hazardous attitudes

Identifying associated hazards is the first step to mitigating the hazardous attitude. Analyzing the likelihood and severity of the hazards occurring establishes the probability of risk. In most cases, risk management steps can be taken to mitigate, even eliminate, those risks. Actions such as using VOs, completing a thorough preflight inspection, planning for weather, familiarity with the airspace, proper aircraft loading, and performance planning can mitigate identified risks. Take advantage of information from a weather briefing, ATC, the FAA, local pilots, and landowners. Technology can aid in decision making and improve situational awareness. Being able to collect the information from these resources and manage the information is key to situational awareness and could have a positive effect on your decision making.

It is also beneficial for remote PICs to assess risk for each mission or type of operation. Guidance on how to conduct such an evaluation is available from the U.S. Geological Survey and can be found at asa2fly.com/reader/TPUAS. This can focus attention on actions or parts of the mission that may entail the highest risk and therefore can be actively mitigated with proper planning, ADM, and CRM.

Physiology

Remote pilots are not required to hold a medical certificate. However, no person may manipulate the flight controls of an sUAS or act as a remote PIC, VO, or direct participant in the operation of the sUA if he or she knows or has reason to know that he or she has a physical or mental condition that would interfere with the safe operation of the sUAS. Remote pilots must self-assess their fitness for flight. Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by a number of physiological factors. While some of the factors may be beyond the control of the pilot, awareness of cause and effect can help minimize any adverse effects. At any time a remote PIC determines that they or another crewmember is unfit to operate the sUAS or participate in its operation, the remote PIC should terminate the operation and/or follow contingency plans for such occasions (e.g., incapacitation).

Hyperventilation, a deficiency of carbon dioxide within the body, can be the result of rapid or extra deep breathing due to emotional tension, anxiety, or fear. Symptoms will subside after the rate and depth of breathing are brought under control. A pilot should be able to overcome the symptoms or avoid future occurrences of hyperventilation by talking aloud, breathing into a bag, or slowing the breathing rate.

The sUAS operating environment can be very extreme for crewmembers. It is not uncommon for sUAS operations to take place in hot, dry and dusty locations, which can lead to dehydration and/or heat stroke. Alternatively, sUAS also operate in cold or other conditions that leave crewmembers exposed to the elements that could lead to dehydration and hypothermia. Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from the body. Causes of dehydration are environmental conditions, wind, humidity, and diuretic drinks (i.e., coffee, tea, alcohol, and caffeinated soft drinks). Some common signs of dehydration are headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness, and dizziness. To help prevent dehydration, drink two to four quarts of water every 24 hours.

Heatstroke is a condition caused by any inability of the body to control its temperature. Onset of this condition may be recognized by the symptoms of dehydration, but also has been known to be recognized only upon complete collapse.

Hypothermia is indicated by shivering, clumsiness, slurred speech, confusion, low energy, discoloration of the skin (red or blue), and loss of consciousness. Remote PICs should ensure that they and their fellow crewmembers are adequately prepared for the planned sUAS operation and the environment in which this operation is set to take place. Some things to keep in mind are: providing ample water or other hydrating beverages, eye protection, sun protection, insect repellent, warm clothes or clothes suited for heat (whichever is appropriate), support equipment, and any other items deemed necessary for safety and comfort.

Stress is ever present in our lives and you may already be familiar with situations that create stress in aviation. However, sUAS operations may create stressors that differ from manned aviation. Such examples may include: working with an inexperienced crewmember, lack of standard crewmember training, interacting with the public and government officials, and understanding new regulatory requirements. Proper planning for the operation can reduce or eliminate stress, allowing you to focus more clearly on the operation.

Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of the effects of fatigue include degradation of attention and concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate. These factors seriously influence the ability to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue results from sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can result in mental fatigue. Fatigue falls into two broad categories: acute and chronic. Acute fatigue is short term and is a normal occurrence in everyday living. It is the kind of tiredness people feel after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep. Rest after exertion and 8 hours of sound sleep ordinarily cures this condition. Chronic fatigue is characterized by extreme fatigue or tiredness that doesn’t go away with rest, and can’t be explained by an underlying medical condition. Chronic fatigue can also occur when there is not enough time for a full recovery from repeated episodes of acute fatigue.

Chronic stress results with longer-term stresses and/or the mismanagement thereof and can result in serious health conditions such as anxiety, high blood pressure, a weakened immune system, depression, confusion, mental errors, insomnia, and memory loss. The best way to cope with chronic stress is to remove stressors as much as practical, take part in physical activity, and/or seek out the advice or care of a healthcare provider.

Vision is the most important body sense for safe flight. Major factors that determine how effectively vision can be used are the level of illumination and the technique of scanning the sky for other aircraft. Atmospheric haze and fog reduces the ability to see traffic or terrain during flight, making all features appear to be farther away than they actually are. Caution is always advised in areas of reduced visibility or low light.

Additionally, the remote PIC and crewmembers should take into account the impact the environment may have on vision, such as location and angle of the sun, the color and texture of the local terrain features, as well as glare from water, buildings, or other objects. Particular caution is advised when operating near terrain features which may make it difficult to distinguish the sUAS from the surrounding environment or may make it difficult to ascertain proper depth perception (e.g., terrain colors similar to the sUA or a large area of trees which may make it more challenging to determine the distance between the unmanned aircraft and the foliage).

Maintenance and Inspection Procedures

Maintenance for sUAS includes scheduled and unscheduled overhaul, repair, inspection, modification, replacement, and system software upgrades for the unmanned aircraft itself and all components necessary for flight.

Manufacturers may recommend a maintenance or replacement schedule for the unmanned aircraft and system components based on time-in-service limits and other factors. Follow all manufacturer maintenance recommendations to achieve the longest and safest service life of the sUAS. If the sUAS or component manufacturer does not provide scheduled maintenance instructions, it is recommended that you establish your own scheduled maintenance protocol. For example:

• Document any repair, modification, overhaul, or replacement of a system component resulting from normal flight operations.

• Record the time-in-service for that component at the time of the maintenance procedure.

• Assess these records over time to establish a reliable maintenance schedule for the sUAS and its components.

During the course of a preflight inspection, you may discover that an sUAS component requires some form of maintenance outside of the scheduled maintenance period. For example, an sUAS component may require servicing (such as lubrication), repair, modification, overhaul, or replacement as a result of normal or abnormal flight operations. Or, the sUAS manufacturer or component manufacturer may require an unscheduled system software update to correct a problem. In the event such a condition is found, do not conduct flight operations until the discrepancy is corrected.

In some instances, the sUAS or component manufacturer may require certain maintenance tasks be performed by the manufacturer or by a person or facility specified by the manufacturer; maintenance should be performed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. However, if you decide not to use the manufacturer or the personnel recommended by the manufacturer and you are unable to perform the required maintenance yourself, you should:

• Solicit the expertise of maintenance personnel familiar with the specific sUAS and its components.

• Consider using certificated maintenance providers, such as repair stations, holders of mechanic and repairman certificates, and persons working under the supervision of a mechanic or repairman.

If you or the maintenance personnel are unable to repair, modify, or overhaul an sUAS or component back to its safe operational specification, then it is advisable to replace the sUAS or component with one that is in a condition for safe operation. Complete all required maintenance before each flight—preferably in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions or, in lieu of that, within known industry best practices.

Careful recordkeeping can be highly beneficial for sUAS owners and operators. For example, recordkeeping provides essential safety support for commercial operators who may experience rapidly accumulated flight operational hours/cycles. Consider maintaining a hardcopy and/or electronic logbook of all periodic inspections, maintenance, preventative maintenance, repairs, and alterations performed on the sUAS. See Figure 5-6. Such records should include all components of the sUAS, including the:

Figure 5-6. A UAS logbook can be used to track remote pilot hours as well as sUAS maintenance

• Small unmanned aircraft itself;

• Control station;

• Launch and recovery equipment;

• Data link equipment;

• Payload; and

• Any other components required to safely operate the sUAS.